Skip to main content
Chemistry LibreTexts

Crystal Field Theory

  • Page ID
    527
  • \( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \) \( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)\(\newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\) \( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\) \( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \(\newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\) \( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\) \( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)\(\newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\)

    One of the most striking characteristics of transition-metal complexes is the wide range of colors they exhibit. Crystal field theory (CFT) is a bonding model that explains many important properties of transition-metal complexes, including their colors, magnetism, structures, stability, and reactivity. The central assumption of CFT is that metal–ligand interactions are purely electrostatic in nature.

    • Colors of Coordination Complexes
      The color for a coordination complex can be predicted using the Crystal Field Theory (CFT). Knowing the color can have a number of useful applications, such as the creation of pigments for dyes in the textile industry. The tendency for coordination complexes to display such a wide array of colors is merely coincidental; their absorption energies happen to fall within range of the visible light spectrum.
    • Crystal Field Stabilization Energy
      A consequence of Crystal Field Theory is that the distribution of electrons in the d orbitals may lead to net stabilization (decrease in energy) of some complexes depending on the specific ligand field geometry and metal d-electron configurations. It is a simple matter to calculate this stabilization since all that is needed is the electron configuration and knowledge of the splitting patterns.
    • Crystal Field Theory
      Crystal field theory (CFT) describes the breaking of orbital degeneracy in transition metal complexes due to the presence of ligands. CFT qualitatively describes the strength of the metal-ligand bonds. Based on the strength of the metal-ligand bonds, the energy of the system is altered. This may lead to a change in magnetic properties as well as color. This theory was developed by Hans Bethe and John Hasbrouck van Vleck.
    • Introduction to Crystal Field Theory
      One of the most striking characteristics of transition-metal complexes is the wide range of colors they exhibit. In this section, we describe crystal field theory (CFT), a bonding model that explains many important properties of transition-metal complexes, including their colors, magnetism, structures, stability, and reactivity. The central assumption of CFT is that metal–ligand interactions are purely electrostatic in nature.
    • Magnetic Moments of Transition Metals
      Magnetic moments are often used in conjunction with electronic spectra to gain information about the oxidation number and stereochemistry of the central metal ion in coordination complexes. A common laboratory procedure for the determination of the magnetic moment for a complex is the Gouy method which involves weighing a sample of the complex in the presence and absence of a magnetic field and observing the difference in weight. A template is provided for the calculations involved.
    • Magnetism
      Movement of an electrical charge (which is the basis of electric currents) generates a magnetic field in a material. Magnetism is therefore a characteristic property of all materials that contain electrically charged particles and for most purposes can be considered to be entirely of electronic origin.
    • Metals, Tetrahedral and Octahedral
    • Non-octahedral Complexes
    • Octahedral vs. Tetrahedral Geometries
      A consequence of Crystal Field Theory is that the distribution of electrons in the d orbitals can lead to stabilization for some electron configurations. It is a simple matter to calculate this stabilization since all that is needed is the electron configuration.
    • Orgel Diagrams
      Orgel diagrams are useful for showing the energy levels of both high spin octahedral and tetrahedral transition metal ions.
    • Tanabe-Sugano Diagrams
      Tanabe Sugano diagrams are used to predict the transition energies for both spin-allowed and spin-forbidden transitions, as well as for both strong field (low spin), and weak field (high spin) complexes. In this method the energy of the electronic states are given on the vertical axis and the ligand field strength increases on the horizontal axis from left to right.
    • Tetrahedral vs. Square Planar Complexes
      High spin and low spin are two possible classifications of spin states that occur in coordination compounds. These classifications come from either the ligand field theory, which accounts for the energy differences between the orbitals for each respective geometry, or the crystal field theory, which accounts for the breaking of degenerate orbital states, compared to the pairing energy.
    • Thermodynamics and Structural Consequences of d-Orbital Splitting
      The energy level splitting of the d-orbitals due to their interaction with the ligands in a complex has important structural and thermodynamic effects on the chemistry of transition-metal complexes. Although these two types of effects are interrelated, they are considered separately here.


    Crystal Field Theory is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

    • Was this article helpful?